A comprehensive guide to car batteries, including common voltage and capacity ratings, as well as their various applications and importance in today’s world.
Tags:
Introduction
Common Voltages and Capacities
Application Areas
Importance in Modern Society
Conclusion
Introduction
The car battery, often overlooked and taken for granted, is a crucial component of any vehicle. It provides the initial burst of power needed to start the engine, as well as maintaining the electrical systems while the engine is running. In this article, we delve into the inner workings of car batteries, discussing common voltage and capacity ratings, their various applications, and their significance in today’s world.
Common Voltages and Capacities
The voltage and capacity of a car battery determine its performance and longevity. A car battery typically has a voltage rating between 12 and 16 volts. The most common voltage ratings are 12 volts, which is standard for most cars, and 16 volts, which is often found in higher-end vehicles or those with electrical needs beyond the norm.
When it comes to capacity, or how much energy a battery can store, batteries are typically measured in ampere-hours (Ah). Common ratings range from 35 Ah to 100 Ah, with most passenger vehicles equipped with batteries in the 50-60 Ah range. The higher the Ah rating, the longer the battery can supply power before recharging.
Application Areas
Car batteries are used in a wide range of applications, from starting the vehicle’s engine to powering auxiliary electrical systems. They supply the initial burst of power needed to turn over the engine, allowing it to begin running. Once the engine is running, the alternator takes over the role of charging the battery while also powering the vehicle’s electrical systems, such as the lights, radio, and climate control.
In addition to their primary function, car batteries also provide backup power in case the engine stops running or the alternator fails. This ensures that the vehicle’s electrical systems can continue to operate, even in an emergency situation.
Importance in Modern Society
In today’s world, where vehicles are increasingly reliant on electrical systems for their operation and comfort, the importance of car batteries has never been greater. A dead battery can strand a vehicle and its occupants, making it crucial for drivers to understand the signs of a weak or dead battery and know how to properly maintain and charge their battery.
Moreover, as vehicles become more advanced, with features like electric ignition, start-stop technology, and advanced safety systems, the demands on car batteries are increasing. This means that batteries must be capable of handling greater power loads while also lasting longer between charges.
Conclusion
The car battery is a crucial component of any vehicle, responsible for providing the initial burst of power needed to start the engine and maintaining the electrical systems while it is running. Understanding common voltage and capacity ratings, as well as their various applications and importance in modern society, is essential for maintaining a reliable and safe vehicle. As technology continues to advance in the automotive industry, it is important to stay up-to-date on the latest battery technologies and best practices for maintaining your vehicle’s battery health.
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Overcharging refers to the process of continuing to apply current to a battery after it has reached its charging capacity limit, causing the battery to continue accepting a charge.
In general, 5V lithium-ion batteries are relatively safe under normal charging conditions because modern electronic devices are typically equipped with charging management circuits that can monitor and control the battery’s charging status to prevent overcharging. However, occasional instances of overcharging may occur.
What are the possible phenomena when a 5V lithium-ion battery is overcharged?
Overheating
Overcharging can lead to the battery overheating, accelerating internal chemical reactions, aging the battery, and compromising its performance. Additionally, overheating may result in safety issues, such as the expansion or even rupture of the battery casing.
Gas Generation
In extreme cases, overcharging may cause the generation of gas inside the battery, leading to the expansion or rupture of the battery casing. Gas generation may also react with components in the electrolyte, further damaging the battery.
Loss of Electrolyte
Electrolyte is essential for the normal operation of the battery, and its loss can result in decreased battery performance, reduced capacity, and even battery failure.
Reduced Battery Lifespan
Overcharging accelerates the aging process of the battery, leading to a shortened lifespan. The cycle life of the battery (the number of charge-discharge cycles) may also significantly decrease.
To avoid overcharging a 5V battery, consider the following practices:
Use Original or Compliant Chargers: Use chargers provided by the original manufacturer or those that comply with relevant standards. This ensures that the charger is designed to meet the battery specifications and incorporates appropriate charging management systems.
Use Appropriate Power Adapters: Ensure that the selected power adapter’s output voltage and current match the battery specifications. Avoid using chargers from unknown sources or those that are not compliant.
Avoid Using Damaged Charging Devices: Refrain from using damaged or broken charging devices, as this may cause unstable current and voltage, increasing the risk of overcharging.
Follow User Instructions: Read and follow the user instructions for both the device and the battery, understanding the maximum allowable charging voltage and current. Ensure compliance with the instructions during use.
Avoid Prolonged Charging: When the battery is fully charged, try to avoid leaving the device plugged in for an extended period. Although modern devices often have charging management systems, it’s still advisable to prevent prolonged charging.
Regularly Check Device and Battery Status: Periodically check the status of the device and the battery to ensure there are no obvious signs of damage or abnormalities. If issues are detected, promptly replace or repair the device.
Use Batteries with Charging Protection: Some batteries come with built-in protection circuits to prevent overcharging. When purchasing batteries, consider selecting models equipped with charging protection features.
Overall, effective battery management is crucial to ensure the safe operation of your 5v batteries and devices, if you are looking for high quality, reliable 5v battery management solutions, please feel free to contact us.
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As we all know, many electric curtains on the market are battery-driven. As the market demand for electric curtains continues to expand, the demand for 18650 battery pack are also increasing. The batteries for electric curtains are very similar in appearance and size.
Currently, the batteries mainly used for electric curtains include 18650 lithium ion battery, 18650 lifepo4 battery, 18650 sodium ion battery, Ni-MH battery
At present, sodium-ion battery is still in its infancy. Some customers have begun testing samples, and there should be greater feedback in the market in recent years. Sodium-ion batteries are also a new trend in the future development of the battery industry.
Ni-MH battery pack 12V, 10S1P 12V 2500mAh.
This type of battery has mature technology, various models to choose from, and the price is not expensive.
HIMAX makes different type of rechargeable battery for electric curtains.
Himax has now also begun to provide sodium-ion battery solutions to our customers to meet the needs of industry development. We have more than 10 years experience and we we got as high as 99% of satisfaction on quality in these years.
Your inquiries are warmly welcome.
Contact Himax now to unlock your exclusive battery customization options, Himax offers a wide range of options and flexible customization services to meet the needs of different users.
If you have any question, please feel free to contact us:
Name: Dawn Zeng (Director)
E-mail address: sales@himaxelectronics.com
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5V batteries are widely employed in various portable devices, characterized by a moderate voltage, compact size, light weight, and relatively high power output, making them an ideal energy source for many mobile devices.
Here are some common portable devices that typically utilize 5V batteries:
Smartphones: The voltage level of 5V batteries is relatively moderate, allowing them to provide sufficient power for smartphones while maintaining a reasonable battery life. This ensures that smartphones can maintain good battery performance over an entire charging cycle.
Tablets: Designed for lightness and portability, tablets often incorporate 5V batteries, offering a balanced power management solution to meet the performance requirements of tablets while maintaining a relatively long battery life. Similar to smartphones, tablets frequently use 5V batteries to support high-resolution screens and complex applications.
Portable Chargers: Since most mobile devices use USB as a charging standard, and the standard voltage for USB charging is 5V, portable chargers with 5V batteries can directly support various USB charging devices, providing broader compatibility.
Bluetooth Headphones and Earphones: Bluetooth headphones and earphones are typically low-power devices that don’t require high voltage to provide sufficient energy. The 5V battery voltage is moderate in this scenario, meeting the power needs of headphones and making them lightweight and easy to carry.
Handheld Gaming Consoles: Designed for portability, handheld gaming consoles often use 5V batteries due to their relatively small size and lightweight, supporting extended gaming experiences.
Smartwatches and Health Trackers: Many smartwatches and health trackers support USB charging with a standard voltage of 5V. By adopting 5V batteries, these devices can directly utilize standard USB charging cables, providing a convenient and universal charging method.
Drones: Small and portable drones typically use 5V batteries to supply the required power for flight.
Cameras and Camcorders: Some portable cameras and camcorders use 5V batteries, making them more convenient to carry and use.
Handheld Electronic Devices: Including small speakers, flashlights, and mobile wireless routers, various portable electronic devices also commonly use 5V batteries.
When applying 5V batteries, it’s essential to consider the following aspects:
Compatibility: Ensure that the selected 5V battery is compatible with the device’s voltage requirements to prevent potential damage or performance degradation.
Quality and Reliability: Opt for high-quality and reliable brands of 5V batteries to ensure performance and safety. Low-quality batteries may pose risks such as leakage, overheating, and other safety hazards.
Charger Selection: Use a charger that aligns with the device’s specifications in terms of charging current and voltage. Using an incorrect charger may impact battery life and safety.
Charging Cycles: Avoid frequent deep discharge cycles, as this can accelerate the aging of 5V batteries. Regular charging and maintaining the battery at an appropriate charge level contribute to sustained performance.
Temperature Control: Avoid using or charging 5V batteries in extreme temperatures, as extreme conditions may affect battery performance and lifespan. High temperatures can lead to overheating, while low temperatures may cause a reduction in battery capacity.
Avoid Overdischarge and Overcharge: Prevent both full discharge and overcharging of 5V batteries. This practice helps extend the battery’s lifespan and reduce internal stress.
Storage Conditions: If a device will not be used for an extended period, ensure the battery is fully charged before storage and store it in a cool, dry place. Avoid storing devices and batteries in environments with high temperatures or humidity.
Maintenance Alerts: Some devices may provide maintenance alerts or settings related to battery care. It’s crucial to follow the manufacturer’s recommendations and perform maintenance promptly.
Monitoring During Charging: Keep the device nearby during charging to take timely action in case of any abnormalities. Overcharging can lead to overheating and safety issues.
Prevent Impact and Compression: Avoid subjecting 5V batteries to strong impacts or compression to prevent battery damage, leakage, or short circuits.
5V rechargeable batteries are a common portable power source. Through careful selection, use, and maintenance of 5V batteries, their performance can be optimized, and their lifespan extended. For more information about battery products or other advanced technological solutions, please feel free to contact us.
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Researchers led by Genki Kobayashi at the RIKEN Cluster for Pioneering Research in Japan have developed a solid electrolyte for transporting hydride ions (H−) at room temperature.
This breakthrough means that the advantages of hydrogen-based solid-state batteries and fuel cells are within practical reach, including improved safety, efficiency, and energy density, which are essential for advancing toward a practical hydrogen-based energy economy. The study was published in the journal Advanced Energy Materials.
For hydrogen-based energy storage and fuel to become more widespread, it needs to be safe, very efficient, and as simple as possible. Current hydrogen-based fuel cells used in electric cars work by allowing hydrogen protons to pass from one end of the fuel cell to the other through a polymer membrane when generating energy.
Efficient, high-speed hydrogen movement in these fuel cells requires water, meaning that the membrane must be continually hydrated so as not to dry out. This constraint adds a layer of complexity and cost to battery and fuel cell design, limiting the practicality of a next-generation hydrogen-based energy economy. To overcome this problem, scientists have been struggling to find a way to conduct negative hydride ions through solid materials, particularly at room temperature.
The wait is over. “We have achieved a true milestone,” says Kobayashi. “Our result is the first demonstration of a hydride ion-conducting solid electrolyte at room temperature.”
The team had been experimenting with lanthanum hydrides (LaH3-δ) for several reasons: the hydrogen can be released and captured relatively easily, hydride ion conduction is very high, they can work below 100°C, and have a crystal structure.
But, at room temperature, the number of hydrogens attached to lanthanum fluctuates between 2 and 3, making it impossible to have efficient conduction. This problem is called hydrogen non-stoichiometry and was the biggest obstacle overcome in the new study. When the researchers replaced some of the lanthanum with strontium (Sr) and added just a pinch of oxygen—for a basic formula of La1-xSrxH3-x-2yOy, they got the results they were hoping for.
The team prepared crystalline samples of the material using a process called ball-milling, followed by annealing. They studied the samples at room temperature and found that they could conduct hydride ions at a high rate. Then, they tested its performance in a solid-state fuel cell made from the new material and titanium, varying the amounts of strontium and oxygen in the formula. With an optimal value of at least 0.2 strontium, they observed complete 100% conversion of titanium to titanium hydride, or TiH2. This means that almost zero hydride ions were wasted.
“In the short-term, our results provide material design guidelines for hydride ion-conducting solid electrolytes,” says Kobayashi. “In the long-term, we believe this is an inflection point in the development of batteries, fuel cells, and electrolytic cells that operate by using hydrogen.”
The next step will be to improve performance and create electrode materials that can reversibly absorb and release hydrogen. This would allow batteries to be recharged, as well as make it possible to place hydrogen in storage and easily release it when needed, which is a requirement for hydrogen-based energy use.
More information: Yoshiki Izumi et al, Electropositive Metal Doping into Lanthanum Hydride for H− Conducting Solid Electrolyte Use at Room Temperature, Advanced Energy Materials (2023). DOI: 10.1002/aenm.202301993
Journal information: Advanced Energy Materials
If you have any question, please feel free to contact us:
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E-mail address: sales@himaxelectronics.com
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Batteries are typically identified by their chemistry and voltage. “5V” stands for 5 volts, which is a measure of the electrical potential difference or voltage that the battery can deliver. Batteries with a 5V output are commonly associated with USB (Universal Serial Bus) power, and they are often used to charge or power various electronic devices.
The physical appearance of a 5V battery would depend on its specific form factor and type. Here are some diverse form factors and types:
Cylindrical Batteries
Some devices use regular AA or AAA batteries, typically delivering 1.5 volts each, but they include internal boost converters to increase the voltage to 5V. Through battery holders, innovative configurations, and the application of boost converters, these familiar cylindrical cells become essential building blocks for customized power solutions.
Coin Cell Batteries
Like the CR2032, coin cell batteries are flat and round. These batteries usually provide 3 volts, and a boost converter can be used to increase the output to 5 volts.
USB Power Banks
USB ports on the power bank indicate the 5V output. They often have a rectangular or cylindrical shape, similar to a small brick or tube. USB power banks commonly provide 5 volts for charging electronic devices.
Custom Battery Packs
For those seeking a tailored approach to portable power, custom battery packs come into play. Devices with unique form factors or specific power requirements often rely on custom-designed battery solutions. These can vary widely in shape and appearance based on the application and design specifications.
Rechargeable Lithium-ion Batteries
As we delve deeper, rechargeable lithium-ion batteries take the spotlight. Renowned for their energy density and versatility, these batteries come in various shapes and sizes, often cylindrical, and have a label indicating the voltage. A voltage regulator or booster might be used to achieve a 5V output.
Remember, achieving a 5V output might involve additional circuitry or combining multiple batteries, as many standard batteries provide lower voltages. From USB power banks to custom packs and beyond, the options are as varied as the applications they serve. As technology continues to advance, the quest for portable power solutions will undoubtedly lead to even more innovative form factors.
HIMAX can provide customized 5v rechargeable battery packs according to your needs. If you have any question, please feel free to contact us:
Name: Dawn Zeng (Director)
E-mail address: sales@himaxelectronics.com
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The energy density of li ion customized battery packs is 48% higher than that of Ni-MH batteries. And its cycle life of charge and discharge times can reach more than 600 times.
Advantages of li ion customized battery packs: small self-discharge, no memory effect, small size, light weight, green and environmental protection.
Application fields: transportation power supply, energy storage power supply, mobile communication power supply, new energy energy storage power supply, aerospace special power supply, electric vehicle applications.
Ni-MH battery is a battery with excellent performance. As an important direction of hydrogen energy application, hydrogen energy has attracted more and more attention.
Advantages: low price, strong versatility, large current, strong reliability, good over-discharge performance, overcharge protection, high charge-discharge rate, no dendrite-formation, good low-temperature performance, no significant change in capacity at -10 °C.
In recent years, more and more Ni-MH batteries are used. The capacity is getting larger and larger, chargers are becoming more and more advanced, and the charging time is greatly shortened.
Uses: electric toys, electric bicycles, power tools, digital products.
Conclusion: In terms of daily charging, li ion customized battery packs have no memory effect and are easy to use. In addition, li ion customized battery packs are light in size and weight, making them easy to carry on mobile devices. The working voltage of the Ni-MH battery is 1.2V~1.5V, and the series voltage of the two batteries is 2.4V~3.0V. Most electrical appliances already have this operating voltage standard, such as walkman, radio, etc. Therefore, in the civil battery, lithium-ion batteries cannot replace Ni-MH batteries. However, in the later development of new electrical appliances, such as mobile phone batteries, camera batteries, mobile power supplies, etc., li-ion battery is more popular now.
If you have any question, please feel free to contact us:
Name: Dawn Zeng (Director)
E-mail address: sales@himaxelectronics.com
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By now, the winter has been successful in many areas. Climate experts predict that the cold air may hit us frequently this winter, and we have ourselves prepared to prevent the cold. Will the batteries, the essential energy supply, and the energy storage device that we live in, also be prepared for the cold days?
For example, in terms of the necessary phone, a fully charged cell phone flies from a warm place to the cold north, when off the plane its power drops sharply or immediately shows “low power for low temperature, automatic shut”. Not only unpaid but also the temperature defeats it. when the phone battery encounters a low temperature beyond its acceptable range, it stops running (also phone freezing phenomenon) so that the mobile phone powers down or automatically off. Knowing the temperature accepted by our batteries is necessary.
Picture 1: Batteries power our life.
Battery classificationon the temperature
Normal temperature battery
This kind of battery is just like humans who enjoy the temperature indoor. Its operating temperature range is generally 0℃~60℃. Under normal circumstances, the temperature is about 45℃, if it exceeds 50 degrees, it will be very hot, and the battery will be easy to age and scrap, such as our commonly used mobile phone battery, mobile power supply, etc. If below minus 20℃, the device with it can’t work normally and it easily ages too.
High-temperature battery
The High-temperature battery uses a solid and inactive electrolyte at a normal ambient temperature. It can only become active at high temperatures by heating from the outside, which is used almost exclusively for military applications.
Low-temperature battery
A low-temperature battery is a battery with strong freezing capacity by adding resistance to the conventional ones and production research and development of technology. Because of the performance advantages of lithium-ion itself, it has become the protagonist in both the institute and the market.
Wide temperature battery
Wide temperature battery with a larger operating temperature range always over 100℃ (like -40℃-80℃ Ni-MH battery)can be applied to other harsh environmental fields such as petroleum drilling and aerospace.
Treat the effect of temperature on the battery
How to maintain the mobile phone in winter?
We have no idea to replace the battery of our mobile phones. But we have some tips to protect it from cold damage:
Before being out
Equip the phone with a thicker and warmer phone case (Picture 2 ).
Stick the mobile phone membrane for anti-static electricity.
Prepare a charging bank and the line.
Picture 2: Equip our electronics against this winter.
When staying outdoor
Put it into a pocket (inside the clothes) or bag to keep warm.
Use the headphones instead of releasing the sound out and shorten the outdoor-use time.
No mobile phone for a large temperature difference.
Do not start it up immediately after an automatic shut down until the temperature of the phone becomes normal.
Choose the correct battery to avoid unnecessary trouble
The battery activity is reduced for the low temperature, which affects charging and limits the use of electricity. If we are going to have a new product. the battery choosing must be taken seriously. When we have to get outdoor to a temperature under 40℃, low-temperature polymer lithium batteries can be your best choice. Maybe you need a battery for your device to climb a mountain or other unique demand. Specializes in battery solutions against different temperatures. There are more suggestions for you, just click here to know more or contact us.
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Learn about the revival of the fuel cell for transportation
The fuel cell as a propulsion system is in many ways superior to a battery because it needs to carry less energy storage by weight and volume compared to a vehicle propelled by batteries only. Figure 1 illustrates the practical driving range of a vehicle powered by a fuel cell (FC) compared to lead acid, NiMH and Li-ion batteries.
Figure 1: Driving range as a function of energy storage.
The logarithmical curves of battery power place limitations in size and weight. The FC has a linear progression and is similar to the ICE vehicle.
Note: 35MPa hydrogen tank refers to 5,000psi pressure; 70MPa is 10,000psi. Source: International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 34, 6005-6020 (2009)+
One can clearly see that batteries simply get too heavy when increasing the size to enable greater distances. In this respect, the fuel cell enjoys similar qualities to the internal combustion engine (ICE) in that it can conquer great distances with only the addition of extra fuel.
The weight of fuel is most critical in air transport. Airlines only carry sufficient fuel to safely reach their designation, knowing that the airplane becomes more fuel efficient towards the end of the journey as the weight eases. A study group calculated that if the kerosene in an aircraft were replaced with batteries, the flight would last less than 10 minutes.
Although the fuel cell assumes the duty of the ICE in a vehicle, poor response time and a weak power band make on-board batteries necessary. In this respect, the FC car resembles an electric vehicle with an on-board charger that keeps the batteries charged. This results in short cycles that reduces battery stress over the EV; a propulsion system that bears a resemblance to the HEV.
The FC of a mid-sized car generates around 85kW (114hp) to charge the 18kWh on-board battery and drive the electric motor. On start-up, the vehicle relies fully on the battery; the fuel cell only contributes after reaching a steady state in 5–30 seconds. During the warm-up period, the battery must also deliver power to activate the air compressor and pumps. Once warm, the FC provides enough power for cruising; however, during acceleration, passing and hill-climbing both the FC and battery provide throttle power. Braking delivers kinetic energy to the battery.
Hydrogen costs about twice as much as gasoline, but the higher efficiency of the FC compared to the ICE in converting fuel to energy bring both systems on par. The FC has the added benefit of producing less greenhouse gas than the ICE.
Hydrogen is commonly derived from natural gas. Folks might ask, “Why not burn natural gas directly in the ICE instead of converting it to hydrogen through a reformer and then transforming it to electricity in a fuel cell to feed the electric motors?” The answer is efficiency. Burning natural gas in a combustion turbine to produce electricity has an efficiency factor of only 26–32 percent while a fuel cell is 35–50 percent efficient. That said, the machinery required to support the FC is costlier and requires more maintenance than a simple burning process.
To complicate matters further, building a hydrogen infrastructure is expensive. A refueling station capable of reforming natural gas to hydrogen to support 2,300 vehicles costs over $2 million, or $870 per vehicle. In comparison, a Level 2 charging outlet to charge EVs can easily be installed by connecting to the existing electric grid. The benefit with FC is a quick refill similar to filling a tank with liquid fuel.
Durability and cost are further deterrents for the FC, but improvements are made. The service life of an FC-powered car has doubled from 1,000 hours to 2,000 hours. The target for 2015 is 5,000 hours, or a vehicle life of 240,000km (150,000 miles).
A further challenge is vehicle cost as the fuel cell is more expensive to build than an ICE. As a guideline, an FC vehicle is more expensive than a plug-in hybrid, and the plug-in hybrid is dearer than a gasoline-powered car. With low fuel prices, alternative propulsion systems are difficult to justify on cost alone and the environmental benefits must be considered. Japan is making renewed efforts with FC propulsion to offer an alternative to the ICE and the EV. Toyota plans to phase out the ICE by 2050 and other vehicle makers are observing the trend.
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Governments are asking the public to reduce fuel consumption and lower pollution. They do this without imposing a change in driving habits and the HEV fits the bill. Japan is leading in adapting the HEV because of high fuel costs and environmental concerns.
The purpose of the HEV is to conserve fuel without sacrificing performance, and the HEV achieves this by using one or several electric motor to assist the ICE during acceleration and to harness kinetic energy when braking. The ICE turns off at traffic lights and the electric motor propels the car through slow-moving traffic. On full power, both the ICE and electric motor engage for optimal acceleration.
The HEV uses a mechanical powertrain to transfer power from the ICE to the wheels. In this respect, the HEV resembles an ordinary vehicle with a crankshaft and a clutch, also known as parallel configuration. Fuel savings are achieved by the use of a smaller ICE that is tuned for maximum fuel efficiency rather than high torque. Toyota claims a thermal efficiency of 40 percent for the new Prius. Peppy driving is accredited to the electric motor as this propulsion system delivers far better torque than a sluggish ICE of the same horsepower. Figure 1 illustrates the different modes of an electrified powertrain in in an HEV.
Figure 1: Basic function or an electrified powertrain in an HEV.
Battery power is only used for short durations. The HEV battery seldom encounters full charge-discharge cycles that are common in the electric vehicle. Source: RWTH Aachen University, Germany
Most batteries for HEVs are guaranteed for 8 years. To meet this long service life, the cells are optimized for longevity rather than high specific energy as with consumer products. The battery maker achieves this in part by using a thicker and more durable separator. To reduce stress, the battery operates at 30–80 percent state-of-charge (SoC), or roughly 3.5–4.0V/cell for Li-ion, rather than the customary 3.0–4.20V/cell.
HEV batteries operate momentarily and share similarity with a starter battery by applying short power bursts for acceleration rather than long, continuous discharges as with the EV. Rarely will an HEV battery discharge to a low 20 percent state-of-charge (SoC). Under normal use, a parallel HEV consumes less than 2 percent of the available battery capacity per mile (1.6km). Capacity fade goes unnoticed, and an HEV battery still works well with less than half the original capacity.
Figure 2 shows the battery capacity of six hybrid cars at a 256,000km (160,000 miles). The test was done by the US Department of Energy’s FreedomCAR and Vehicle Technologies Program (FCVT) in 2006 according to SAE J1634 practices and it included the Honda Civic, Honda Insight and Toyota Prius.
Figure 2: End-of-life battery capacity of HEVs. At 256,000km (160,000 miles), the two Honda Civic vehicles had 68% capacity, the Insight had 85% and the Prius had 39%. The capacity fade did not affect the fuel efficiency by much. Source: FreedomCAR and Vehicle Technologies Program
The hybrid battery of the two Honda Civic vehicles had 68 percent remaining capacity; the Insight had 85 percent and the Prius 39 percent. Even with lower capacity at the end of life, the fuel efficiency was not severely affected. The Insight showed a 1.2mpg (0.12L/km) decrease in fuel economy during the test, while the Prius reduced the fuel efficiency by 3.2mpg (0.33L/km). Air-conditioning was off in both cases.
Stringent battery demands are needed for hybrid trucks with a gross vehicle weight of 33 tons (73,000 lb). The battery must be able to continuously charge and discharge at 4C, deliver 10kW (200hp) for up to 10 minutes, operate at –20°C to 40°C (–4°F to 104°F) and deliver 5 years of service. Supercapacitors would provide the required durability but high cost and low energy density are against this choice. Lead acid has good discharge characteristics but it is slow to charge. Li-ion, especially LTO, would be a good choice but high power draw requires active cooling. Second generation NiMH is being tested; the rugged NiCd may also be tried.
Paradox of the hybrid vehicle
As good as a hybrid may be, the car is not without ironies. At a conference addressing advanced automotive batteries, an HEV opponent argued with an HEV maker that a diesel car offers better fuel economy than a hybrid. Being a good salesman, the HEV maker flatly denied the claim. Perhaps both are right. In city driving, the HEV clearly delivers better fuel-efficiency while diesel consumes less on the highway. Combining both would provide the best solution, but the high cost of a diesel-hybrid solution might not pay back with low fuel prices, although such vehicles are available in Europe.
High-end HEVs come with a full-sized ICE of 250hp and an electrical motor of 150–400hp in total. Such vehicles will surely find buyers, especially if the government assists with grants for being “green.” It’s unfortunate that consumers who walk, cycle or take public transportation won’t get such handouts. Common sense reminds us to conserve energy by driving less, or using smaller vehicles when driving is necessary.
Wolfgang Hatz, the then head of powertrain for Volkswagen Group, said that hybrid technology is a very expensive way to save a small amount of fuel and states that Volkswagen only makes hybrids because of political pressure. He supports diesel as the most energy-efficient motor, especially on highways.
Volkswagen may have a solution — the 1-Liter Car (Figure 3). It is called the 1-Liter Car because the concept vehicle burns only one liter of fuel per 100km. To prove the concept, the then VW chairman Dr. Ferdinand Piëch drove the car from their headquarters in Wolfsburg to Hamburg for a shareholders meeting. The average consumption was just 0.89 liters per 100km (317mpg).
Figure 3: Volkswagen’s 1-Liter Car. The 1-Liter Car is said to be the most economical car in the world but it never made it into production. Source: Volkswagen AG
Aerodynamics and weight help to achieve the low fuel consumption. While a typical car has a drag coefficient of 0.30, the 1-Liter Car is only 0.16. Carbon fiber and a magnesium frame reduce the weight to 290kg (640lb). The one-cylinder diesel engine generates 8.5hp (6.3kW), and the 6.5-litre (1.43-gallon) fuel tank has a range of 650 kilometers (400 miles). The average fuel consumption is 0.99 liter per 100km (238mpg).
Although the 1-Liter Car did not go into production, VW demonstrated that fossil fuel could be stretched should the cost rise or should frivolous consumption create unsustainably high pollution levels. Point-to-point personal transportation could be made possible with a light carrier that weighs only 290kg, a weight that is less than the 540kg Tesla S battery. Rather than consuming 150–250Wh per kilometer, as with an electric vehicle, the 1-Liter Car would only use about 40Wh/km. Even though it burns fossil fuel, the environmental impact would be less than an EV propelled with electricity, which is mainly produced by fossil fuel.
Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV)
Most PHEVs use a fully electrified powertrain in a series configuration with no mechanical linkage from ICE to wheels. The system runs solely on the electric motor for propulsion, and the ICE only engages when the batteries get low to supply electricity for the electric motor and to charge the battery. The driving range of a fully charged battery is about 50km (30 miles).
The PHEV is ideal for commuting and doing errands. No gasoline is consumed when driving on batteries and the highways are tax-free. However, there will be an increase in the electrical utility bill to charge the batteries at home.
Unlike the parallel HEV that relies on the battery for only brief moments, the PHEV battery is in charge depletion mode, meaning that the battery must work harder than on an HEV. This adds to battery stress and reduces longevity. While a capacity drop to 39 percent will affect the performance of the Toyota Prius HEV only marginally, such a loss would reduce the electric driving range of a PHEV from 50km to 20km (30 to 12 miles).
The Chevy Volt carries a 16kWh Li-ion battery that weighs 181kg (400 lb) and powers a 149hp (111kW) electric motor. The temperature of the prismatic cells is kept at 20–25C (68–77F) during charging and driving. An 115VAC outlet fills the battery in 8 hours; a 230VAC reduces the charging time to 3 hours. The driving range is 64km (40 miles) before the 1.4-liter four-cylinder ICE kicks in to activate the 53kW AC generator that powers the electric motors.
Economics
As good as the PHEV sounds, the long-term savings may be smaller than expected, especially if a battery replacement is needed during the life of the car. Battery aging is an issue that car makers avoid mentioning in fear of turning buyers away. A motorist used to driving ICE cars expects ample power at hot and cold temperatures and minimal performance degradation with age. The battery cannot match this fully, and the owner will need to tolerate a decrease in driving range during the winter, as well as accept a small reduction in delivered mileage with each advancing year due to battery aging.
Modern cars do more than provide transportation; they also include amenities for safety, comfort and pleasure. The most basic of these are the headlights and windshield wipers. Buyers also want cabin heat and air-conditioning, services that are taken for granted in a vehicle that burns fossil fuel. Heat is a by-product in the ICE that must be generated with battery power in a PHEV, but the larger concern is air-conditioning, which draws 3–5kW of power. Comforts might need to be provided more sparingly when running on a battery.
Many PHEV buyers value the environmental benefit and the pleasure of driving a quiet vehicle powered by electricity. This has a large buyer appeal because electric propulsion is more natural than that of an ICE. Drivers must adapt to the new lifestyle of charging the vehicle at night when electricity is cheap and then driving measured distances. Users of these cars will also appreciate new charging stations at workplaces and shopping malls.
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