Learn how certain discharge loads will shorten battery life.

The purpose of a battery is to store energy and release it at a desired time. This section examines discharging under different C-rates and evaluates the depth of discharge to which a battery can safely go. The document also observes different discharge signatures and explores battery life under diverse loading patterns.

The electrochemical battery has the advantage over other energy storage devices in that the energy stays high during most of the charge and then drops rapidly as the charge depletes. The supercapacitor has a linear discharge, and compressed air and a flywheel storage device is the inverse of the battery by delivering the highest power at the beginning. Figures 1, 2 and 3 illustrate the simulated discharge characteristics of stored energy.

Most rechargeable batteries can be overloaded briefly, but this must be kept short. Battery longevity is directly related to the level and duration of the stress inflicted, which includes charge, discharge and temperature.

Remote control (RC) hobbyists are a special breed of battery users who stretch tolerance of “frail” high-performance batteries to the maximum by discharging them at a C-rate of 30C, 30 times the rated capacity. As thrilling as an RC helicopter, race car and fast boat can be; the life expectancy of the packs will be short. RC buffs are well aware of the compromise and are willing to both pay the price and to encounter added safety risks.

To get maximum energy per weight, drone manufacturers gravitate to cells with a high capacity and choose the Energy Cell. This is in contrast to industries requiring heavy loads and long service life. These applications go for the more robust Power Cell at a reduced capacity.

Depth of Discharge

Lead acid discharges to 1.75V/cell; nickel-based system to 1.0V/cell; and most Li-ion to 3.0V/cell. At this level, roughly 95 percent of the energy is spent, and the voltage would drop rapidly if the discharge were to continue. To protect the battery from over-discharging, most devices prevent operation beyond the specified end-of-discharge voltage.

When removing the load after discharge, the voltage of a healthy battery gradually recovers and rises towards the nominal voltage. Differences in the affinity of metals in the electrodes produce this voltage potential even when the battery is empty. A parasitic load or high self-discharge prevents voltage recovery.

A high load current, as would be the case when drilling through concrete with a power tool, lowers the battery voltage and the end-of-discharge voltage threshold is often set lower to prevent premature cutoff. The cutoff voltage should also be lowered when discharging at very cold temperatures, as the battery voltage drops and the internal battery resistance rises. Table 4 shows typical end-of-discharge voltages of various battery chemistries.

End-of-discharge Nominal	Li-manganese 3.60V/cell	Li-phosphate 3.20V/cell	Lead acid 2.00V/cell	NiCd/NiMH 1.20V/cell
Normal load Heavy load or low temperature	3.0–3.3V/cell 2.70V/cell	2.70V/cell 2.45V/cell	1.75V/cell 1.40V/cell	1.00V/cell 0.90V/cell

Table 4: Nominal and recommended end-of-discharge voltages under normal and heavy load. The lower end-of-discharge voltage on a high load compensates for the greater losses.

Over-charging a lead acid battery can produce hydrogen sulfide, a colorless, poisonous and flammable gas that smells like rotten eggs. Hydrogen sulfide also occurs during the breakdown of organic matter in swamps and sewers and is present in volcanic gases and natural gas. The gas is heavier than air and accumulates at the bottom of poorly ventilated spaces. Strong at first, the sense of smell deadens with time, and the victims are unaware of the presence of the gas. (See BU-703: Health Concerns with Batteries.)

What Constitutes a Discharge Cycle?

A discharge/charge cycle is commonly understood as the full discharge of a charged battery with subsequent recharge, but this is not always the case. Batteries are seldom fully discharged, and manufacturers often use the 80 percent depth-of-discharge (DoD) formula to rate a battery. This means that only 80 percent of the available energy is delivered and 20 percent remains in reserve. Cycling a battery at less than full discharge increases service life, and manufacturers argue that this is closer to a field representation than a full cycle because batteries are commonly recharged with some spare capacity left.

There is no standard definition as to what constitutes a discharge cycle. Some cycle counters add a full count when a battery is charged. A smart battery may require a 15 percent discharge after charge to qualify for a discharge cycle; anything less is not counted as a cycle. A battery in a satellite has a typical DoD of 30–40 percent before the batteries are recharged during the satellite day. A new EV battery may only charge to 80 percent and discharge to 30 percent. This bandwidth gradually widens as the battery fades to provide identical driving distances. Avoiding full charges and discharges reduces battery stress. (See also BU-1003: Electric Vehicle.)

A hybrid car only uses a fraction of the capacity during acceleration before the battery is recharged. Cranking the motor of a vehicle draws less than 5 percent energy from the starter battery, and this is also called a cycle in the automotive industry. Reference to cycle count must be done in context with the respective duty.

Reference to discharge cycle or cycle count does not relate equally well to all battery applications. One example where counting discharge cycles does not reflect state-of-life accurately is in a storage device (ESS). These batteries supplement renewable energies from wind power and photovoltaic by delivering short-term energy when needed and storing if in excess. The time duration between charge and discharged can be in milliseconds; a typical battery state-of-charge is 40–60%. Rather than cycle count, coulomb counting may be used as a means of measuring wear and tear.

Connect charging behavior to fundamentals in Battery Health

Battery users often ask: “Why does an old Li-ion lake so long to charge?” Indeed, when Li-ion gets older, the battery takes its time to charge even if there is little to fill. We call this the “old-man syndrome.” Figure 1 illustrates the charge time of a new Li-ion with a capacity of 100 percent against an aged pack delivering only 82 percent. Both take roughly 150 minutes to charge.

Figure 1: New and aged Li-ion batteries are charged.
Both packs take roughly 150 minutes to charge. The new pack charges to 1,400mAh (100%) while the aged one only goes to 1,150mAh (82%).

When charging Li-ion, the voltage shoots up similar to lifting a weight with a rubber band. The new pack as demonstrated in Figure 2 is “hungrier” and can take on more “food” before reaching the 4.20V/cell voltage limit compared to the aged Li-ion that hits V Limit in Stage 1 after only about 60 minutes. In terms of a rubber band analogy, the new battery has less slack than to the aged pack and can accept charge longer before going into saturation.

Figure 2: Observing charge times of a new and aged Li-ion in Stage 1.
The new Li-ion takes on full charge for 90 minutes while the aged cell reaches 4.20V/cell in 60 minutes、

Figure 3 demonstrates the different saturation times in Stage 2 as the current trails from the fully regulated current to about 0.05C to trigger ready mode. The trailing on a good battery is short and is prolonged on an aged pack. This explains the longer charge time of an older Li-ion with less capacity. An analogy is a young athlete running a sprint with little or no slow-down towards the end, while the old man gets out of breath and begins walking, prolonging the time to reach the goal.

Figure 3: Observing saturation times of new and aged Li-ion in Stage 2 before switching to ready.
The new cell stays in full-charge longer than the old cell and has a shorter current trail.

A common aging effect of Li-ion is loss of charge transfer capability. This is caused by the formation of passive materials on the electrodes, which inhibits the flow of free electrons. This reduces the porosity on the electrodes, decreases the surface area, lowers the lower ionic conductivity and raises migration resistance. The aging phenomenon is permanent and cannot be reversed.

The health of a battery is based on these three fundamental attributes:

• Capacity, the ability to store energy. Capacity is the leading health indicator of a battery
• Internal resistance, the ability to deliver current
• Self-discharge, indicator of the mechanical integrity

The charge signature reveals valuable health indicators of Li-ion. A good battery absorbs most of the charge in Stage 1 before reaching 4.20V/cell and the trailing in Stage 2 is short. “Lack of hunger” on a Li-ion can be attributed to a battery being partially charged; exceptionally long trailing times relates to a battery with low capacity, high internal resistance and/or elevated self-discharge.

Most future batteries function wonderfully in a theoretical world, but many fail to meet the eight basic requirement of the so-called Octagon Battery. Short cycle life and limited load currents often prevent commercialization of the breakthroughs. While futuristic batteries may find a niche market, many never step outside the lab and see the light of day, not to mention advance to power the electric powertrain. This touches with emotions and is as far as the battery can go.

Chemistry	Lithium-air	Lithium-metal	Solid-state Lithium	Lithium-sulfur Li-S	Sodium-iron Na-ion
Type	Air cathode with lithium anode	Lithium anode; graphite cathode	Lithium anode; polymer separator	Lithium anode; sulfur cathode	Carbon anode; diverse cathodes
Voltage per cell	1.70–3.20V	3.60V	3.60V	2.10V	3.6V
Specific Energy	13kWh/kg theoretical)	300Wh/kg	300Wh/kg (est.)	500Wh/kg or less	90Wh/kg
Charging	Unknown	Rapid charge	Rapid charge	0.2C (5h)	Unknown
Discharging	Low power; inferior when cold	High power band	Poor conductivity when cold	High power (2,500W/kg)	Unknown
Cycle life	50 cycles in labs	2,500	100, prototypes	50, disputed	50 typical
Packaging	Not defined	Not defined	Prismatic	Not defined	Not defined
Safety	Unknown	Needs improvement	Needs improvement	Protection circuit required	Safe; shipment by air possible
History	Started in 1970s; renewed interest in the 2000s. R&D by IBM MIT, UC, etc.	Produced in the 1980s by Moli Energy; caused safety recall	Similar to Li-polymer that started in 1970	New technology; R&D by Oxis Energy, Bosch and others.	Ignored in the 1980s in favor of lithium; has renewed interest
Failure modes	Lithium peroxide film stops electron movement with use. Air impurity causes damage.	Dendrite growth causes electric short with usage	Dendrite growth causes electric short; poor low temperature. performance	Sulfur degrades with cycling; unstable when hot, poor conductivity	Little research in this area
Applications	Not defined; potential for EV	EV, industrial and portable uses	EES, wheeled mobility; also talk about EV	Solar-powered airplane flight in August 2008	Energy storage
Comments	Borrowed from “breathing” zinc-air and fuel cell concept	Good capacity, fast charge and high power keep interest high	Similar to lithium-metal; may be ready by 2020; EVs in 2025	May succeed Li-ion due to lower cost and higher capacity	Low cost in par with lead acid. Can be fully discharged.

Table 1: Summary of most common future batteries. Readings are estimated and may vary with different versions and newer developments. More information on BU-212: Future Batteries. Readings are estimated and may vary with newest development.

Discover which charger is best for your application

A good battery charger provides the base for batteries that are durable and perform well. In a price-sensitive market, chargers often receive low priority and get the “after-thought” status. Battery and charger must go together like a horse and carriage. Prudent planning gives the power source top priority by placing it at the beginning of the project rather than after the hardware is completed, as is a common practice. Engineers are often unaware of the complexity involving the power source, especially when charging under adverse conditions.

Figure 1: Battery and charger must go together like horse and carriage. One does not deliver without the other.

Chargers are commonly identified by their charging speed. Consumer products come with a low-cost personal charger that performs well when used as directed. The industrial charger is often made by a third party and includes special features, such as charging at adverse temperatures. Although batteries operate below freezing, not all chemistries can be charged when cold and most Li-ions fall into this category. Lead- and nickel-based batteries accept charge when cold but at a lower rate. (See BU-410: Charging at High and Low Temperature)

Some Li-ion chargers (Cadex) include a wake-up feature, or “boost,” to allow recharging if a Li-ion battery has fallen asleep due to over-discharge. A sleep condition can occur when storing the battery in a discharged state in which self-discharge brings the voltage to the cut-off point. A regular charger treats such a battery as unserviceable and the pack is often discarded. Boost applies a small charge current to raise the voltage to between 2.2V/cell and 2.9V/cell to activate the protection circuit, at which point a normal charge commences. Caution is required if a Li-ion has dwelled below 1.5V/cell for a week or longer. Dendrites may have developed that could compromise safety. (See BU-802b: What does Elevated Self-discharge Do? in which Figures 5 examines the elevated self-discharge after a Li-ion cell had been exposed to deep discharge. See also BU-808a: How to Awaken Sleeping Li-ion.)

Lead- and lithium-based chargers operate on constant current constant voltage (CCCV). The charge current is constant and the voltage is capped when it reaches a set limit. Reaching the voltage limit, the battery saturates; the current drops until the battery can no longer accept further charge and the fast charge terminates. Each battery has its own low-current threshold.

Nickel-based batteries charge with constant current and the voltage is allowed to rise freely. This can be compared to lifting a weight with a rubber band where the hand advances higher than the load. Full charge detection occurs when observing a slight voltage drop after a steady rise. To safeguard against anomalies, such as shorted or mismatched cells, the charger should include a plateau timer to assure a safe charge termination if no voltage delta is detected. Temperature sensing should also be added that measures temperature rise over time. Such a method is known as delta temperature over delta time, or dT/dt, and works well with rapid and fast charge.

A temperature rise is normal with nickel-based batteries, especially when reaching the 70 percent charge level. A decrease in charge efficiency causes this, and the charge current should be lowered to limit stress. When “ready,” the charger switches to trickle charge and the battery must cool down. If the temperature stays above ambient, then the charger is not performing correctly and the battery should be removed because the trickle charge could be too high.

NiCd and NiMH should not be left in the charger unattended for weeks and months. Until required, store the batteries in a cool place and apply a charge before use.

Lithium-based batteries should always stay cool on charge. Discontinue the use of a battery or charger if the temperature rises more than 10ºC (18ºF) above ambient under a normal charge. Li ion cannot absorb over-charge and does not receive trickle charge when full. It is not necessary to remove Li-ion from the charger; however, if not used for a week or more, it is best to place the pack in a cool place and recharge before use.

Types of Chargers

The most basic charger was the overnight charger, also known as a slow charger. This goes back to the old nickel-cadmium days where a simple charger applied a fixed charge of about 0.1C (one-tenth of the rated capacity) as long as the battery was connected. Slow chargers have no full-charge detection; the charge stays engaged and a full charge of an empty battery takes 14–16 hours. When fully charged, the slow charger keeps NiCd lukewarm to the touch. Because of its reduced ability to absorb over-charge, NiMH should not be charged on a slow charger. Low-cost consumer chargers charging AAA, AA and C cells often deploy this charge method, so do some children’s toys. Remove the batteries when warm.

The rapid charger falls between the slow and fast charger and is used in consumer products. The charge time of an empty pack is 3–6 hours. When full, the charger switches to “ready.” Most rapid chargers include temperature sensing to safely charge a faulty battery.

The fast charger offers several advantages and the obvious one is shorter charge times. This demands tighter communication between the charger and battery. At a charge rate of 1C, (see BU-402:What is C-rate?) which a fast charger typically uses, an empty NiCd and NiMH charges in a little more than an hour. As the battery approaches full charge, some nickel-based chargers reduce the current to adjust to the lower charge acceptance. The fully charged battery switches the charger to trickle charge, also known as maintenance charge. Most of today’s nickel-based chargers have a reduced trickle charge to also accommodate NiMH.

Li-ion has minimal losses during charge and the coulombic efficiency is better than 99 percent. At 1C, the battery charges to 70 percent state-of-charge (SoC) in less than an hour; the extra time is devoted to the saturation charge. Li-ion does not require the saturation charge as lead acid does; in fact it is better not to fully charge Li-ion — the batteries will last longer but the runtime will be a little less. Of all chargers, Li-ion is the simplest. No trickery applies that promises to improve battery performance as is often claimed by makers of chargers for lead- and nickel-based batteries. Only the rudimentary CCCV method works.

Lead acid cannot be fast charged and the term “fast-charge” is a misnomer. Most lead acid chargers charge the battery in 14–16 hours; anything slower is a compromise. Lead acid can be charged to 70 percent in about 8 hours; the all-important saturation charge takes up the remaining time. A partial charge is fine provided the lead acid occasionally receives a fully saturated charge to prevent sulfation.

The standby current on a charger should be low to save energy. Energy Star assigns five stars to mobile phone chargers and other small chargers drawing 30mW or less on standby. Four stars go to chargers with 30–150mW, three stars to 150–250mW and two stars to 250–350mW. The average consumption is 300mW and these units get one star. Energy Star aims to reduce current consumption of personal chargers that are mostly left plugged in when not in use. There are over one billion such chargers connected to the gird globally at any given time.

Simple Guidelines when Buying a Charger

• Charging a battery is most effective when its state-of-charge (SoC) is low. Charge acceptance decreases when the battery reaches a SoC of 70% and higher. A fully charged battery can no longer convert electric energy into chemical energy and charge must be lowered to trickle or terminated.
• Filling a battery beyond full state-of-charge turns excess energy into heat and gas. With Li-ion, this can result in a deposit of unwanted materials. Prolonged over-charge causes permanent damage.
• Use the correct charger for the intended battery chemistry. Most chargers serve one chemistry only. Make sure that the battery voltage agrees with the charger. Do not charge if different.
• The Ah rating of a battery can be marginally different than specified. Charging a larger battery will take a bit longer than a smaller pack and vice versa. Do not charge if the Ah rating deviates too much (more than 25 percent).
• A high-wattage charger shortens the charge time but there are limitations as to how fast a battery can be charged. Ultra-fast charging causes stress.
• A lead acid charger should switch to float charge when fully saturated; a nickel-based charger must switch to trickle charge when full. Li-ion cannot absorb overcharge and receives no trickle charge. Trickle charge and float charges compensate for the losses incurred by self-discharge.
• Chargers should have a temperature override to end charge on a faulty battery.
• Observe charge temperature. Lead acid batteries should stay lukewarm to the touch; nickel-based batteries will get warm towards the end of charge but must cool down on “ready.” Li-ion should not rise more than 10ºC (18ºF) above ambient when reaching full charge.
• Check battery temperature when using a low-cost charger. Remove battery when warm.
• Charge at room temperature. Charge acceptance drops when cold. Li-ion cannot be charged below freezing.

Learn about the differences within the lead acid family and find out what the cons and pros are.

Invented by the French physician Gaston Planté in 1859, lead acid was the first rechargeable battery for commercial use. Despite its advanced age, the lead chemistry continues to be in wide use today. There are good reasons for its popularity; lead acid is dependable and inexpensive on a cost-per-watt base. There are few other batteries that deliver bulk power as cheaply as lead acid, and this makes the battery cost-effective for automobiles, golf cars, forklifts, marine and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS).

The grid structure of the lead acid battery is made from a lead alloy. Pure lead is too soft and would not support itself, so small quantities of other metals are added to get the mechanical strength and improve electrical properties. The most common additives are antimony, calcium, tin and selenium. These batteries are often known as “lead-antimony” and “lead­calcium.”

Adding antimony and tin improves deep cycling but this increases water consumption and escalates the need to equalize. Calcium reduces self-discharge, but the positive lead-calcium plate has the side effect of growing due to grid oxidation when being over-charged. Modern lead acid batteries also make use of doping agents such as selenium, cadmium, tin and arsenic to lower the antimony and calcium content.

Lead acid is heavy and is less durable than nickel- and lithium-based systems when deep cycled. A full discharge causes strain and each discharge/charge cycle permanently robs the battery of a small amount of capacity. This loss is small while the battery is in good operating condition, but the fading increases once the performance drops to half the nominal capacity. This wear-down characteristic applies to all batteries in various degrees.

Depending on the depth of discharge, lead acid for deep-cycle applications provides 200 to 300 discharge/charge cycles. The primary reasons for its relatively short cycle life are grid corrosion on the positive electrode, depletion of the active material and expansion of the positive plates. This aging phenomenon is accelerated at elevated operating temperatures and when drawing high discharge currents. (See BU-804:How to Prolong Lead Acid Batteries)

Charging a lead acid battery is simple, but the correct voltage limits must be observed. Choosing a low voltage limit shelters the battery, but this produces poor performance and causes a buildup of sulfation on the negative plate. A high voltage limit improves performance but forms grid corrosion on the positive plate. While sulfation can be reversed if serviced in time, corrosion is permanent. (See BU-403: Charging Lead Acid.)

Lead acid does not lend itself to fast charging and with most types, a full charge takes 14–16 hours. The battery must always be stored at full state-of-charge. Low charge causes sulfation, a condition that robs the battery of performance. Adding carbon on the negative electrode reduces this problem but this lowers the specific energy. ( See BU-202: New Lead Acid Systems. )

Lead acid has a moderate life span, but it is not subject to memory as nickel-based systems are, and the charge retention is best among rechargeable batteries. While NiCd loses approximately 40 percent of their stored energy in three months, lead acid self-discharges the same amount in one year. The lead acid battery works well at cold temperatures and is superior to lithium-ion when operating in subzero conditions. According to RWTH, Aachen, Germany (2018), the cost of the flooded lead acid is about $150 per kWh, one of the lowest in batteries.

Sealed Lead Acid

The first sealed, or maintenance-free, lead acid emerged in the mid-1970s. Engineers argued that the term “sealed lead acid” was a misnomer because no lead acid battery can be totally sealed. To control venting during stressful charge and rapid discharge, valves have been added that release gases if pressure builds up. Rather than submerging the plates in a liquid, the electrolyte is impregnated into a moistened separator, a design that resembles nickel- and lithium-based systems. This enables operating the battery in any physical orientation without leakage.

The sealed battery contains less electrolyte than the flooded type, hence the term “acid-starved.” Perhaps the most significant advantage of sealed lead acid is the ability to combine oxygen and hydrogen to create water and prevent dry out during cycling. The recombination occurs at a moderate pressure of 0.14 bar (2psi). The valve serves as a safety vent if the gas buildup rises. Repeated venting should be avoided as this will lead to an eventual dry-out. According to RWTH, Aachen, Germany (2018), the cost of VRLA is about $260 per kWh.

Several types of sealed lead acid have emerged and the most common are gel, also known as valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA), and absorbent glass mat (AGM). The gel cell contains a silica type gel that suspends the electrolyte in a paste. Smaller packs with capacities of up to 30Ah are often called SLA (sealed lead acid). Packaged in a plastic container, these batteries are used for small UPS, emergency lighting and wheelchairs. Because of low price, dependable service and low maintenance, the SLA remains the preferred choice for healthcare in hospitals and retirement homes. The larger VRLA is used as power backup for cellular repeater towers, Internet hubs, banks, hospitals, airports and more.

The AGM suspends the electrolyte in a specially designed glass mat. This offers several advantages to lead acid systems, including faster charging and instant high load currents on demand. AGM works best as a mid-range battery with capacities of 30 to 100Ah and is less suited for large systems, such as UPS. Typical uses are starter batteries for motorcycles, start-stop function for micro-hybrid cars, as well as marine and RV that need some cycling.

With cycling and age, the capacity of AGM fades gradually; gel, on the other hand, has a dome shaped performance curve and stays in the high performance range longer but then drops suddenly towards the end of life. AGM is more expensive than flooded, but is cheaper than gel. (Gel would be too expensive for start/stop use in cars.)

Unlike the flooded, the sealed lead acid battery is designed with a low over-voltage potential to prohibit the battery from reaching its gas-generating potential during charge. Excess charging causes gassing, venting and subsequent water depletion and dry-out. Consequently, gel, and in part also AGM, cannot be charged to their full potential and the charge voltage limit must be set lower than that of a flooded. This also applies to the float charge on full charge. In respect to charging, the gel and AGM are no direct replacements for the flooded type. If no designated charger is available for AGM with lower voltage settings, disconnect the charger after 24 hours of charge. This prevents gassing due to a float voltage that is set too high. ( See BU-403: Charging Lead Acid )

The optimum operating temperature for a VRLA battery is 25°C (77°F); every 8°C (15°F) rise above this temperature threshold cuts battery life in half. ( See BU-806a: How Heat and Loading affect Battery Life ) Lead acid batteries are rated at a 5-hour (0.2C) and 20-hour (0.05C) discharge rate. The battery performs best when discharged slowly; the capacity readings are substantially higher at a slower discharge than at the 1C-rate. Lead acid can, however, deliver high pulse currents of several C if done for only a few seconds. This makes the lead acid well suited as a starter battery, also known as starter-light-ignition (SLI). The high lead content and the sulfuric acid make lead acid environmentally unfriendly.

Lead acid batteries are commonly classified into three usages: Automotive (starter or SLI), motive power (traction or deep cycle) and stationary (UPS).

Starter Batteries

The starter battery is designed to crank an engine with a momentary high-power load lasting a second or so. For its size, the battery is able to deliver high current but it cannot be deep-cycled. Starter batteries are rated with Ah or RS (reserve capacity) to indicate energy storage capability, as well as CCA (cold cranking amps) to signify the current a battery can deliver at cold temperature. SAE J537 specifies 30 seconds of discharge at –18°C (0°F) at the rated CCA ampere without the battery voltage dropping below 7.2 volts. RC reflects the runtime in minutes at a steady discharge of 25. (SAE stands for Society of Automotive Engineers.) See also BU-902a: How to Measure CCA.

Starter batteries have a very low internal resistance that is achieved by adding extra plates for maximum surface area (Figure 1). The plates are thin and the lead is applied in a sponge-like form that has the appearance of fine foam, expanding the surface area further. Plate thickness, which is important for a deep-cycle battery is less important because the discharge is short and the battery is recharged while driving; the emphasis is on power rather than capacity.

Figure 1: Starter battery The starter battery has many thin plates in parallel to achieve low resistance with high surface area. The starter battery does not allow deep cycling. Courtesy of Cadex

Deep-cycle Battery

The deep-cycle battery is built to provide continuous power for wheelchairs, golf cars, forklifts and more. This battery is built for maximum capacity and a reasonably high cycle count. This is achieved by making the lead plates thick (Figure 2). Although the battery is designed for cycling, full discharges still induce stress and the cycle count relates to the depth-of-discharge (DoD). Deep-cycle batteries are marked in Ah or minutes of runtime. The capacity is typically rated as a 5-hour and 20-hour discharge.

Figure 2: Deep-cycle battery The deep-cycle battery has thick plates for improved cycling abilities. The deep-cycle battery generally allows about 300 cycles. Courtesy of Cadex

A starter battery cannot be swapped with a deep-cycle battery or vice versa. While an inventive senior may be tempted to install a starter battery instead of the more expensive deep-cycle on his wheelchair to save money, the starter battery would not last because the thin sponge-like plates would quickly dissolve with repeated deep cycling.

There are combination starter/deep-cycle batteries available for trucks, buses, public safety and military vehicles, but these units are big and heavy. As a simple guideline, the heavier the battery is, the more lead it contains, and the longer it will last. Table 3 compares the typical life of starter and deep-cycle batteries when deep cycled.

Depth of discharge	Starter battery	Deep-cycle battery
100% 50% 30%	12–15 cycles 100–120 cycles 130–150 cycles	150–200 cycles 400–500 cycles 1,000 and more cycles

Table 3: Cycle performance of starter and deep-cycle batteries. A discharge of 100% refers to a full discharge; 50% is half and 30% is a moderate discharge with 70% remaining.

Lead Acid or Li-ion in your Car?

Ever since Cadillac introduced the starter motor in 1912, lead acid batteries served well as battery of choice. Thomas Edison tried to replace lead acid with nickel-iron (NiFe), but lead acid prevailed because of its rugged and forgiving nature, as well as low cost. Now the lead acid serving as starter battery in vehicles is being challenged by Li-ion.

Figure 4 illustrates the characteristics of lead acid and Li-ion. Both chemistries perform similarly in cold cranking. Lead acid is slightly better in W/kg, but Li-ion delivers large improvements in cycle life, better specific energy in Wh/kg and good dynamic charge acceptance. Where Li-ion falls short is high cost per kWh, complex recycling and less stellar safety record than lead acid.

Figure 4: Comparison of lead acid and Li-ion as starter battery.
Lead acid maintains a strong lead in starter battery. Credit goes to good cold temperature performance, low cost, good safety record and ease of recycling.
^{Source: Johnson Control}

Lead is toxic and environmentalists would like to replace the lead acid battery with an alternative chemistry. Europe succeeded in keeping NiCd out of consumer products, and similar efforts are being made with the starter battery. The choices are NiMH and Li-ion, but the price is too high and low temperature performance is poor. With a 99 percent recycling rate, the lead acid battery poses little environmental hazard and will likely continue to be the battery of choice.

Table 4 lists advantages and limitations of common lead acid batteries in use today. The table does not include the new lead acid chemistries. (See also BU-202: New Lead Acid Systems.)

Advantages	Inexpensive and simple to manufacture; low cost per watt-hour Low self-discharge; lowest among rechargeable batteries High specific power, capable of high discharge currents Good low and high temperature performance
Limitations	Low specific energy; poor weight-to-energy ratio Slow charge; fully saturated charge takes 14-16 hours Must be stored in charged condition to prevent sulfation Limited cycle life; repeated deep-cycling reduces battery life Flooded version requires watering Transportation restrictions on the flooded type Not environmentally friendly

Table 4: Advantages and limitations of lead acid batteries. Dry systems have advantages over flooded but are less rugged.