Discover familiar battery formats, some of which going back to the late 1800s.

Early batteries of the 1700s and 1800s developed in Europe were mostly encased in glass jars. As batteries grew in size, jars shifted to sealed wooden containers and composite materials. In the 1890s, battery manufacturing spread from Europe to the United States and in 1896 the National Carbon Company successfully produced a standard cell for widespread consumer use. It was the zinc-carbon Columbia Dry Cell Battery producing 1.5 volts and measuring 6 inches in length.

With the move to portability, sealed cylindrical cells emerged that led to standards sizes. The International Electrochemical Commission (IEC), a non-governmental standards organization founded in 1906, developed standards for most rechargeable batteries. In around 1917, the National Institute of Standards and Technology formalized the alphabet nomenclature that is still used today. Table 1 summarizes these historic and current battery sizes.

Size	Dimensions	History
F cell	33 x 91 mm	Introduced in 1896 for lanterns; later used for radios; only available in nickel-cadmium today.
E cell	N/A	Introduced ca. 1905 to power box lanterns and hobby applications. Discontinued ca. 1980.
D cell	34.2 x 61.5mm	Introduced in 1898 for flashlights and radios; still current.
C cell	25.5 x 50mm	Introduced ca. 1900 to attain smaller form factor.
Sub-C	22.2 x 42.9mm 16.1mL	Cordless tool battery. Other sizes are ½, 4/5 and 5/4 sub-C lengths. Mostly NiCd.
B cell	20.1 x 56.8mm	Introduced in 1900 for portable lighting, including bicycle lights in Europe; discontinued in in North America in 2001.
A cell	17 x 50mm	Available in NiCd, NiMH and primary lithium; also in 2/3 and 4/5 sizes. Popular in older laptops and hobby applications.
AA cell	14.5 x 50mm	Introduced in 1907 as penlight battery for pocket lights and spy tool in WWI; added to ANSI standard in 1947.
AAA cell	10.5 x 44.5mm	Developed in 1954 to reduce size for Kodak and Polaroid cameras. Added to ANSI standard in 1959.
AAAA cell	8.3 x 42.5mm	Offshoot of 9V, since 1990s; used for laser pointers, LED penlights, computer styli, headphone amplifiers.
4.5V battery	67 x 62 x 22mm	Three cells form a flat pack; short terminal strip is positive, long strip is negative; common in Europe, Russia.
9V battery	48.5 x 26.5 x 17.5mm	Introduced in 1956 for transistor radios; contains six prismatic or AAAA cells. Added to ANSI standard in 1959.
18650	18 x 65mm 16.5mL	Developed in the mid-1990s for lithium-ion; commonly used in laptops, e-bikes, including Tesla EV cars.
26650	26 x 65mm 34.5mL	Larger Li-ion. Some measure 26x70mm sold as 26700. Common chemistry is LiFeO4 for UPS, hobby, automotive.
14500	14x 50mm	Li-ion, similar size to AA. (Observe voltage incompatibility: NiCd/NiMH = 1.2V, alkaline = 1.5V, Li-ion = 3.6V)
21700*	21 x 70mm	New (2016), used for the Tesla Model 3 and other applications, made by Panasonic, Samsung, Molicel, etc.
32650	32 x 65mm	Primarily in LiFePO4 (Lithium Iron Phosphate)

Table 1: Common old and new battery norms.
^{* The 21700 cell is also known as 2170. IEC norm calls for the second zero at the end to denote cylindrical format.}

Standardization included primary cells, mostly in zinc-carbon; alkaline emerged only in the early 1960s. With the growing popularity of the sealed nickel-cadmium in the 1950s and 1960s, new sizes appeared, many of which were derived from the “A” and “C” sizes. Beginning in the 1990s, makers of Li-ion departed from conventional sizes and invented their own standards.

A successful standard is the 18650 cylindrical cell. Developed in the early 1990s for lithium-ion, these cells are used in laptops, electric bicycles and even electric vehicles (Tesla). The first two digits of 18650 designate the diameter in millimeters; the next three digits are the length in tenths of millimeters. The 18650 cell is 18mm in diameter and 65.0mm in length.

Other sizes are identified with a similar numbering scheme. For example, a prismatic cell carries the number 564656P. It is 5.6mm thick, 46mm wide and 56mm long. P stands for prismatic. Because of the large variety of chemistries and their diversity within, battery cells do not show the chemistry.

Few popular new standards have immerged since the 18650 appeared in ca. 1991. Several battery manufacturers started experimenting using slightly larger diameters with sizes of 20x70mm, 21x70mm and 22x70mm. Panasonic and Tesla decided on the 21×70, so has Samsung, and other manufacturers followed. The “2170” is only slightly larger than the 18650 it but has 35% more energy (by volume). This new cell is used in the Tesla Model 3 while Samsung is looking at new applications in laptops, power tools, e-bikes and more. It is said that the best diameters in terms of manufacturability is between 18mm and 26mm and the 2170 sits in between. (The 2170 is also known as the 21700.) The 26650 introduced earlier never became a best-seller.

The 32650 is primarily available in LiFePO₄ (Lithium Iron Phosphate) with a nominal voltage of 3.2V/cell and a typical capacity of 5,000mAh. The dimensions are 32x65mm; true sizes may be slightly larger to allow for insulation and labels.

On the prismatic and pouch cell front, new cells are being developed for the electric vehicle (EV) and energy storage systems (ESS). Some of these formats may one day also become readily available similar to the 18650, made in high energy and high power versions, sourced by several manufacturers and sold at a competitive prices. Prismatic and pouch cells currently carry a higher price tag per Wh than the 18650.

The EV and ESS markets advance with two distinct philosophies: The use of a large number of small cells produced by an automated process as low cost, as done by Tesla, versus larger cells in the prismatic and pouch formats at a higher price per Wh for now, as done by other EV manufacturers. We have not seen clear winners of either format; time will tell.

Looking at the batteries in mobile phones and laptops, one sees a departure from established standards. This is due in part to the manufacturers’ inability to agree on a standard, meaning that most consumer devices come with custom-made cells or battery packs. Compact design and market demand are swaying manufacturers to go their own way. High volume with planned obsolescence allows the production of unique sizes in consumer products.

In the early days, a battery was perceived “big” by nature, and this is reflected in the sizing convention. While the “F” nomenclature may have been seen as mid-sized in the late 1800s, our forefathers did not anticipate that a battery resembling a credit card could power computers, phones and cameras. Running out of letters towards the smaller sizes led to the awkward numbering of AA, AAA and AAAA.

Since the introduction of the 9V battery in 1956, no new formats have emerged. Meanwhile portable devices lowered the operating voltages to between 3V and 5V. Switching six cells (6S) in series to attain 9V is expensive to manufacture, and a 3.6V alternative would serve better. This imaginary new pack would have a coding system to prevent charging primaries and select the correct charge algorithm for secondary chemistries.

Starter batteries for vehicles also follow battery norms that are based on the North American BCI, the European DIN and the Japanese JIS standards. These batteries are similar in footprint to allow swapping. Deep-cycle and stationary batteries follow no standardized norms and the replacement packs must be sourced from the original maker. The attempt to standardize electric vehicle batteries may not work and might follow the failed attempt to standardize laptop batteries in the 1990s.

Future Cell Formats

Standardization for Li-ion cell formats is diverse, especially for the electric vehicle. Research teams, including Fraunhofer,* examine and evaluate various formats and the most promising cell types until 2025 will be the pouch and the 21700 cylindrical formats. Looking further, experts predict the large-size prismatic Li-ion cell to domineer in the EV battery market. Meanwhile, Samsung and others bet on the prismatic cell, LG gravitates towards the pouch format and Panasonic is most comfortable with the 18650 and 21700 cylindrical cells.

Large battery systems for ESS, UPS, marine vessels and traction use mostly large format pouch cells stacked with light pressure to prolong longevity and prevent delamination. Thermal management is often done by plates drawing the heat between layers to the outside and liquid cooling.

Safety Concerns with Rechargeable Cells

Off-the-shelf cells have primarily been non-rechargeable and for public use. Typical applications are spares for flashlights, portable entertainment devices and remote controls. Accidental shorting with keys or coins in a jean pocket only causes an alkaline cell to heat up and not catch fire. The voltage collapses on an electrical short because of high internal resistance; removing the short stops the reaction. (See BU-304c: Battery Safety in Public.)

Rechargeable cells are normally encapsulated in a for-purpose pack. The exception is the 18650 available as a spare cell for vaping. Looking like a large AA cell, these Li-ion cells can inflict acute injury, even death, if mishandled. If shorted, an unprotected Li-ion cell will vent with flame. Once the jet-like explosion is in progress, removing the short no longer stops the reaction and the cell burns out. Li-ion’s ability to deliver high power is a characteristic that must be respected. (See also BU-304c: Battery Safety in Public.)

The 18650 cell can be made safe with built-in safety circuits described in BU-304b: Making Lithium-ion Safe. With protection, excessive current shuts the cell down, either momentarily by a heat element or permanently by an electric fuse. But the fused 18650 has the disadvantage of shutting down when high current is needed on purpose, such as vaping. Spare cells for vaping are normally unprotected.

Another cause of fire is low quality no-brand cells. Li-ion batteries are safe if made by a reputable manufacturer. Many aftermarket cells do not have the same rigorous safety checks as brand name products have. (See BU-810: What Everyone Should Know About Aftermarket Batteries.) Cells can also be damaged by stress related to heat, shock, vibration and incorrect charging or loading.

Learn about storage temperatures and state-of-charge conditions.

The recommended storage temperature for most batteries is 15°C (59°F); the extreme allowable temperature is –40°C to 50°C (–40°C to 122°F) for most chemistries.

Lead acid

You can store a sealed lead acid battery for up to 2 years. Since all batteries gradually self-discharge over time, it is important to check the voltage and/or specific gravity, and then apply a charge when the battery falls to 70 percent state-of-charge, which reflects 2.07V/cell open circuit or 12.42V for a 12V pack. (The specific gravity at 70 percent charge is roughly 1.218.) Lead acid batteries may have different readings, and it is best to check the manufacturer’s instruction manual. Some battery manufacturer may further let a lead acid to drop to 60 percent before recharge. See BU-903: How to Measure State-of-charge.)

Low charge induces sulfation, an oxidation layer on the negative plate that inhibits current flow. Topping charge and/or cycling may restore some of the capacity losses in the early stages of sulfation. (See BU-804b: Sulfation and How to Prevent it.)

Sulfation may prevent charging small sealed lead acid cells, such as the Cyclone by Hawker, after prolonged storage. These batteries can often be reactivated by applying an elevated voltage. At first, the cell voltage under charge may go up to 5V and draw very little current. Within 2 hours or so, the charging current converts the large sulfate crystals into active material, the cell resistance drops and the charge voltage gradually normalizes. At between 2.10V and 2.40V the cell is able to accept a normal charge. To prevent damage, set the current limit to a very low level. Do not attempt to perform this service if the power supply does not have current limiting. (See BU-405: Charging with a Power Supply.)

Nickel-based

Recommended storage is around 40 percent state-of-charge (SoC). This minimizes age-related capacity loss while keeping the battery operational and allowing for some self-discharge. Nickel-based batteries can be stored in a fully discharged state with no apparent side effect.

Measuring SoC by voltage is difficult on nickel-based batteries. A flat discharge curve, agitation after charge and discharge and temperature affects the voltage. The good news is that the charge level for storage is not critical for this chemistry, so simply apply some charge if the battery is empty and store it in a cool and dry place. With some charge, priming should be quicker than if stored in a totally discharged state.

Nickel-metal-hydride can be stored for 3–5 years. The capacity drop that occurs during storage is partially reversible with priming. Nickel-cadmium stores well. The US Air Force was able to deploy NiCd batteries that had been in storage for 5 years with good recovered capacities after priming. It is believed that priming becomes necessary if the voltage drops below 1V/cell. Primary alkaline and lithium batteries can be stored for up to 10 years with only moderate capacity loss.

Lithium-based

There is virtually no self-discharge below about 4.0V at 20C (68F); storing at 3.7V yields amazing longevity for most Li-ion systems. Finding the exact 40–50 percent SoC level to store Li-ion is not that important. At 40 percent charge, most Li-ion has an OCV of 3.82V/cell at room temperature. To get the correct reading after a charge or discharge, rest the battery for 90 minutes before taking the reading. If this is not practical, overshoot the discharge voltage by 50mV or go 50mV higher on charge. This means discharging to 3.77V/cell or charging to 3.87V/cell at a C-rate of 1C or less. The rubber band effect will settle the voltage at roughly 3.82V. Figure 1 shows the typical discharge voltage of a Li-ion battery.

Figure 1: Discharge voltage as a function of state-of-charge. Battery SoC is reflected in OCV. Lithium manganese oxide reads 3.82V at 40% SoC (25°C), and about 3.70V at 30% (shipping requirement). Temperature and previous charge and discharge activities affect the reading. Allow the battery to rest for 90 minutes before taking the reading.

Li-ion cannot dip below 2V/cell for any length of time. Copper shunts form inside the cells that can lead to elevated self-discharge or a partial electrical short. (See BU-802b: Elevated Self-discharge.) If recharged, the cells might become unstable, causing excessive heat or showing other anomalies. Li-ion batteries that have been under stress may function normally but are more sensitive to mechanical abuse. Liability for incorrect handling should go to the user and not the battery manufacturer.

Alkaline

Alkaline and other primary batteries are easy to store. For best results, keep the cells at cool room temperature and at a relative humidity of about 50 percent. Do not freeze alkaline cells, or any battery, as this may change the molecular structure. Some lithium-based primary batteries need special care that is described in BU-106a: Choices of Primary Batteries.

Capacity Loss during Storage

Storage induces two forms of losses: Self-discharge that can be refilled with charging before use, and non-recoverable losses that permanently lower the capacity. Table 2 illustrates the remaining capacities of lithium- and nickel-based batteries after one year of storage at various temperatures. Li-ion has higher losses if stored fully charged rather than at a SoC of 40 percent. (See BU-808: How to Prolong Lithium-based Batteries to study capacity loss in Li-ion.)

Temperature	Lead acid at full charge	Nickel-based at any charge	Lithium-ion (Li-cobalt)
			40% charge	100% charge
0°C 25°C 40°C 60°C	97% 90% 62% 38% (after 6 months)	99% 97% 95% 70%	98% 96% 85% 75%	94% 80% 65% 60% (after 3 months)

Table 2: Estimated recoverable capacity when storing a battery for one year. Elevated temperature hastens permanent capacity loss. Depending on battery type, lithium-ion is also sensitive to charge levels.

Batteries are often exposed to unfavorable temperatures, and leaving a mobile phone or camera on the dashboard of a car or in the hot sun are such examples. Laptops get warm when in use and this increases the battery temperature. Sitting at full charge while plugged into the mains shortens battery life. Elevated temperature also stresses lead- and nickel-based batteries. (See BU-808: How to Prolong Lithium-based Batteries.)

Nickel-metal-hydride can be stored for 3–5 years. The capacity drop that occurs during storage is partially reversible with priming. Nickel-cadmium stores well. The US Air Force was able to deploy NiCd batteries that had been in storage for 5 years with good recovered capacities after priming. It is believed that priming becomes necessary if the voltage drops below 1V/cell. Primary alkaline and lithium batteries can be stored for up to 10 years with only moderate capacity loss.

You can store a sealed lead acid battery for up to 2 years. Since all batteries gradually self-discharge over time, it is important to check the voltage and/or specific gravity, and then apply a charge when the battery falls to 70 percent state-of-charge, which reflects 2.07V/cell open circuit or 12.42V for a 12V pack. (The specific gravity at 70 percent charge is roughly 1.218.) Lead acid batteries may have different readings, and it is best to check the manufacturer’s instruction manual. Some battery manufacturer may further let a lead acid to drop to 60 percent before recharge. Low charge induces sulfation, an oxidation layer on the negative plate that inhibits current flow. Topping charge and/or cycling may restore some of the capacity losses in the early stages of sulfation. (See BU-804b: Sulfation and How to Prevent it.)

Sulfation may prevent charging small sealed lead acid cells, such as the Cyclone by Hawker, after prolonged storage. These batteries can often be reactivated by applying an elevated voltage. At first, the cell voltage under charge may go up to 5V and draw very little current. Within 2 hours or so, the charging current converts the large sulfate crystals into active material, the cell resistance drops and the charge voltage gradually normalizes. At between 2.10V and 2.40V the cell is able to accept a normal charge. To prevent damage, set the current limit to a very low level. Do not attempt to perform this service if the power supply does not have current limiting. (See BU-405: Charging with a Power Supply.)

Alkaline batteries are easy to store. For best results, keep the cells at cool room temperature and at a relative humidity of about 50 percent. Do not freeze alkaline cells, or any battery, as this may change the molecular structure.

AirShip

Li-ion batteries not only live longer when stored partially charged; they are also less volatile in shipment should an anomaly occur. The International Air Transport Association (IATA) and FAA mandate that all removable Li-ion packs be shipped at 30% state-of-charge. (More on BU-704a: Shipping Lithium-based Batteries by Air.) SoC can be estimated by measuring the open circuit voltage of a rested battery. (See also BU-903: How to Measure State-of-charge.)

Relating SoC to voltage can be inaccurate as the voltage curve of Li-ion between 20% to 100% charge is flat, as Figure 1 demonstrates. Temperature also plays a role, so do the active materials used in a cell. Aviation authorities seem less concerned about the exact 30% SoC but the importance of shipping Li-ion below 50% SoC. Larger misgivings are wrong labeling by passing Li-ion as a benign nickel-based chemistry.

To bring Li-ion to 30% SoC, discharge the battery in a device featuring a fuel gauge and terminate the discharge at 30% charge. The Embedded Battery Management System (BMS) does a reasonably good job giving SoC information but the measurements are seldom accurate. A full discharge to “Low Batt” is acceptable as long as the battery receives a charge at destination. Keeping Li-ion in a discharged state for a few months could slip the pack to sleep mode. (See BU-808a: How to Awaken a Sleeping Li-ion.)

Modern chargers feature the “AirShip” program that prepares a Li-ion pack for air shipment by discharging or charging the battery to 30% SoC on command. Typical methods are a full discharge with subsequent recharge to 30% using coulomb counting or advanced Kalman filters. Li-ion batteries built into devices have less stringent SoC requirements than removable packs.

Simple Guidelines for Storing Batteries

• Primary batteries store well. Alkaline and primary lithium batteries can be stored for 10 years with moderate loss capacity.
• When storing, remove the battery from the equipment and place in a dry and cool place.
• Avoid freezing. Batteries freeze more easily if kept in discharged state.
• Charge lead acid before storing and monitor the voltage or specific gravity frequently; apply a charge if below 2.07V/cell or if SG is below 1.225 (most starter batteries).
• Nickel-based batteries can be stored for 3–5years, even at zero voltage; prime before use.
• Lithium-ion must be stored in a charged state, ideally at 40 percent. This prevents the battery from dropping below 2.50V/cell, triggering sleep mode.
• Discard Li-ion if kept below 2.00/V/cell for more than a week. Also discard if the voltage does not recover normally after storage. (See BU-802b: What does Elevated Self-discharge do?)

CAUTION

When charging an SLA with over-voltage, current limiting must be applied to protect the battery. Always set the current limit to the lowest practical setting and observe the battery voltage and temperature during charge. In case of rupture, leaking electrolyte or any other cause of exposure to the electrolyte, flush with water immediately. If eye exposure occurs, flush with water for 15 minutes and consult a physician immediately. Wear approved gloves when touching electrolyte, lead and cadmium. On exposure to skin, flush with water immediately.

Batteries can release high energies and the safety requirements for nickel- and lithium-based batteries and cells for portable applications are harmonized under IEC 62133. The standard came into effect in 2012 to reduce the global risk in transporting, storing and operating batteries.

 

The most basic safety device in a battery is a fuse that opens on high current. Some fuses open permanently and render the battery useless; others are more forgiving and reset. Figure 1 illustrates the top of an 18650 cell for Li-ion with built-in safety features. The resistance of the positive thermal coefficient (PTC) (blue) is low during normal operation and increases when the temperature rises above a critical level to reduce current flow. The PTC is reversible and returns to high conductivity when the temperature normalizes.

 

The current interrupt device (CID) is a fuse-type device that cuts off the electrical circuit permanently when triggered by excessive cell pressure, high temperature, or high voltage, depending on design. In Figure 1, the CID operates by pressure. When the internal pressure increases to about 1,000kPa, the scored top disk (orange) breaks, separates from the metallic foil (brown) and disconnects the current flow. This also allows gas to vent.

 

The last safety device is the vent that releases gas during an anomaly and can be resealed. However, the pressure of a disintegrating cell can be so large that the gases are unable to escape in an orderly way and venting with flame occurs. In some cases the top of the cell escapes like a bullet from a shotgun. Similar to a nuclear meltdown that cannot be stopped once in progress; a Li-ion battery once in disintegration should be allowed to burn out in a safe place with ventilation.

Figure 1: Typical safety mechanism of the 18650 cell cap.
PTC (blue) increases resistance by heat to reduce electrical current. The effect is reversible.
CID consists of a top disk (orange) that breaks under pressure and permanently disconnects the current flow.
^{Source: CALCE (Center for Advanced Life Cycle Engineering)}

Protection devices have a residual resistance that causes a slight decrease in overall performance due to a resistive voltage drop. Not all cells have built-in protections and the responsibility for safety in its absence falls to the Battery Management System (BMS).

Further layers of safeguards can include solid-state switches in a circuit that is attached to the battery pack to measure current and voltage and disconnect the circuit if the values are too high. Protection circuits for Li-ion packs are mandatory. (See BU-304b: Making Lithium-ion Safe.)

More information on why batteries fail, what the user can do when a battery overheats and simple guidelines using Lithium-ion Batteries are described in BU-304a: Safety Concerns with Li-ion.

 

Intrinsically Safe Batteries

Safety is vitally important when using electronic devices in hazardous areas. Intrinsic safety (IS) ensures harmless operation in areas where an electric spark could ignite flammable gas or dust. Hazardous areas include oil refineries, chemical plants, grain elevators and textile mills.

All electronic devices entering a hazardous area must be intrinsically safe. This includes two-way radios, mobile phones, laptops, cameras, flashlights, gas detectors, test devices and medical instruments, even when powered with primary AA and AAA cells. Intrinsically safe devices and batteries contain protection circuits that prevent excessive currents that could lead to high heat, sparks and explosion. The hazard levels are subdivided into these four disciplines.

1. Types of Hazardous Materials present

• Class I        Flammable gases, vapors or liquids in petroleum refineries, utility gas plants
• Class II       Combustible dust in grain elevators, coal preparations plants
• Class III      Ignitable fibers and flyings in textile mills, wood processing creating sawdust, etc.

2. Likelihood of Hazardous Materials present

• Division I        Hazardous materials can exist in ignitable concentrations
• Division II       Hazardous materials will not likely exist in ignitable concentrations

3. Potency of Hazardous Material (Groups from A to G)

A hazardous material is given a designation of: Acetylene (A), hydrogen (B), ethylene (C), propane, gasoline, etc. (D), metal dust (E), coal dust  (F) and grain dust (G).

4. Temperature Codes (from T1 to T6)

The explosion danger of gases or combustible dust is affected by surface temperature. T1 is a hot 450ºC (842ºF); T6 is a moderate 85ºC (185ºF). All other temperatures fall in between.

Intrinsic safety requirements vary from country to country. North America has the Factory Mutual Research Corporation, Underwriters Laboratories (UL) and Canadian Standards Association (CSA); Europe has the ATEX directive; while other countries follow the IECEx standards. Many countries recognize harmonized IEC 60079.

From: Jack Bayliss

You walk into work one morning and find out that a battery system isn’t working. What happens? How much time will you lose trying to fix it? Getting it back online will probably cost money, but how much?  

When it comes to battery malfunctions, that’s not even the worst-case scenario. What if damage to the battery system causes equipment damage further downstream or even creates a fire?

You consider eventualities like this whenever you integrate a new piece of machinery or develop a new work process, but have you gone through this process when integrating your battery system?  

In this article, we’ll take a look at circuit protection and why it’s so important for industrial batteries. We’ll analyze a few of the different options you have for battery protection systems and how each system can help you to avoid battery damage and dangerous accidents.  

Let’s start with the basics:

What Are Battery Protection Systems?

A battery protection system is any device that safeguards against battery malfunctions. Some are only effective against basic issues like overcharge or short circuit, while others provide complex monitoring and balancing for an entire battery system. 

What Do They Protect Against?

To really understand why battery protection systems are so important, you need to know what can happen if they’re not in place: 

Short Circuits

These occur when a current takes a shortcut. Electricity always wants to go back to the ground as soon as possible, but a correctly functioning circuit keeps it on the proper track. If the wiring in the circuit malfunctions, the current can escape and go back to the ground another way. That way might involve going through your equipment or one of your workers.

Overcharge

When you put too much charge into a rechargeable battery, that extra energy becomes heat. The temperature of the battery can rise beyond safe limits and reduce the battery’s lifespan.

Over Discharge

Draining too much of the charge from a battery can damage it in several ways, including decreasing the capacity of the battery, causing it to require charging more often, and causing a short circuit within the battery. If a lithium-ion battery lacks a protection system, it is highly prone to these and other malfunctions related to over-discharge.

Overcurrent

Too much current within the circuit can result from a number of malfunctions, including short circuits. If there is enough excess current, it can ignite components of the machinery and cause a fire.

How Do Battery Protection Systems Help?

Battery protection systems serve to keep the temperature and voltage balanced in your battery. Steady temperatures are critical for optimal battery life, which increases the safety of your operations and reduces your material costs. 

An effective battery protection system will measure the current and temperature in your battery and adjust the circuit to provide protection if levels become unsafe. The process typically involves a thermistor, a ceramic-type semiconductor that decreases in resistance when the temperature of the battery rises. When this happens, it indicates the need for control and simultaneously acts as a battery “first aid.” 

Thermistors work in conjunction with other safety mechanisms. Together, these systems provide the current and temperature control that a battery needs to stay operational. Let’s take a look at some of the most effective options:

Polymeric Positive Temperature Coefficients

The polymeric positive temperature coefficient, or PPTC, helps to balance the circuit against excess energy. Just like a standard fuse, it opens to create high resistance when there is too much current in the system. When the current decreases back to normal levels, it resets.  

Unlike some types of fuses, the PPTC resets itself so that you can still use the battery after the overcurrent is corrected. It simply serves to keep the battery functional until electricity resets back to normal levels.  

PPTCs are most commonly used for nickel batteries. They’re affordable, easy to install, and are compatible with most systems. 

Protection Circuit Modules

Protection circuit modules, or PCMs, protect against overcharge, over-discharge, and excessively fast discharge, all of which can cause an excess of current. In lithium batteries, the PCM usually protects against these situations using a metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor, or MOSFET.

The MOSFET alters the circuit’s conduction by switching cells on if the voltage falls too quickly or off if the voltage rises to unsafe levels. It keeps the battery running while helping to avoid damage, preserving battery life in the short and long term.  

Battery Management Systems

A battery management system, or BMS, is necessary when you need more precise control over multiple batteries. They provide all of the standard protection involved with simpler systems while monitoring individual cells and the system as a whole.

A BMS can do any of the following:

• Preserve the life of the battery and keep it safe to use 
• Report the state of the battery’s charge and capacity
• Indicate when the battery is in need of replacement
• Warn the user when the battery needs repair or when the voltage flow is too high 

The most important difference between a BMS and a simpler battery protection system is the ability of the BMS to monitor each cell as well as the full system.    

Individual cell monitoring is critical for battery health because systemwide malfunctions often show themselves at the individual cell level first. By monitoring the voltage in each cell and alerting the user to voltage overages or drops, a BMS can prompt repair of issues such as corrosion or dry-out before they do extensive damage.

In addition to monitoring, a BMS provides safety protection during key processes, including charging and discharging and disconnects the battery in case of failure or safety hazard. It integrates completely with the machine’s software system, allowing the user to get battery alerts as readily as texts or emails.

The Takeaway

Battery protection systems ensure the correct flow of voltage through your batteries, protecting your machinery as well as the health and safety of your personnel.

At Himax, we understand that battery protection is an essential safety function. We offer a variety of products to meet the needs of our industrial clients, and we take pride in our ability to help you select the right product for your business.

If you’re in need of a custom battery or battery charger, contact us today to get started.